Size dependent antipredator responses in a fish-shrimp mutualism.

For prey, taking refuge from predators has obvious fitness benefits but may also be costly by impinging on time and effort available for feeding or attracting mates. The antipredator responses of refuge-seeking animals are therefore predicted to vary strategically depending on how threatening they perceive the risk. To test this, we studied the impacts of a simulated predatory threat on the antipredator responses of wild sandy prawn-gobies (Ctenogobiops feroculus) that co-inhabit burrows with Alpheus shrimp (family Alpheidae) in a mutualistic relationship. We exposed goby-shrimp pairs, repeatedly on three separate occasions, to an approaching threat and measured the antipredator behaviours of both partners. We found that re-emerging from the burrow took longer in large compared to small fish. Moreover, quicker re-emergence by small-but not medium or large-sized gobies-was associated with an earlier flight from the approaching threat (i.e. when the threat was still further away). Finally, the goby and shrimp sharing a burrow were matched in body size and their risk-taking behaviour was highly dependent on one another. The findings contribute to our understanding of how an individual's phenotype and perception of danger relates to its risk-taking strategy, and how mutualistic partners can have similar risk sensitivities.

A systematic evaluation on the relationship between hypo-osmoregulation and hyper-osmoregulation in decapods of different habitats.

Decapods occupy all aquatic, and terrestrial and semi-terrestrial environments. According to their osmoregulatory capacity, they can be osmoconformers or osmoregulators (hypo or hyperegulators). The goal of this study is to gather data available in the literature for aquatic decapods and verify if the rare hyporegulatory capacity of decapods is associated with hyper-regulatory capacity. The metric used to quantify osmoregulation was the osmotic capacity (OC), the gradient between external and internal (hemolymph) osmolalities. We employ phylogenetic comparative methods using 83 species of decapods to test the correlation between hyper OC and hypo OC, beyond the ancestral state for osmolality habitat, which was used to reconstruct the colonization route. Our analysis showed a phylogenetic signal for habitat osmolality, hyper OC and hypo OC, suggesting that hyper-hyporegulators decapods occupy similar habitats and show similar hyper and hyporegulatory capacities. Our findings reveal that all hyper-hyporegulators decapods (mainly shrimps and crabs) originated in estuarine waters. Hyper OC and hypo OC are correlated in decapods, suggesting correlated evolution. The analysis showed that species which inhabit environments with intense salinity variation such as estuaries, supratidal and mangrove habitats, all undergo selective pressure to acquire efficient hyper-hyporegulatory mechanisms, aided by low permeabilities. Therefore, hyporegulation can be observed in any colonization route that passes through environments with extreme variations in salinity, such as estuaries or brackish water.

Shell disease syndromes of decapod crustaceans.

The term shell disease subsumes a number of debilitating conditions affecting the outer integument (the carapace) of decapod crustaceans, such as lobsters and crabs. Herein, we seek to find commonality in the aetiology and pathology of such conditions, and those cases that result in the progressive erosion of the cuticle through to the visceral tissues by a cocktail of microbial-derived enzymes including lipases, proteases and chitinases. Aquimarina spp. are involved in shell disease in many different crustaceans across a wide geographical area, but the overall view is that the condition is polymicrobial in nature leading to dysbiosis within the microbial consortium of the damaged cuticle. The role of environment, decapod behaviour and physiology in triggering this disease is also reviewed. Finally, we provide a conceptual model for disease aetiology and suggest several avenues for future research that could improve our understanding of how such factors trigger, or exacerbate, this condition.

Effects of environmental factors on the cellular and molecular parameters of the immune system in decapods.

Crustaceans and in particular decapods (i.e. shrimp, crabs and lobsters) are a diverse, commercially and ecologically important group of organisms. They are exposed to a range of environmental factors whose abiotic and biotic components are prone to fluctuate beyond their optimum ranges and, in doing so, affect crustaceans' immune system and health. Changes in key environmental factors such as temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, ammonia concentrations and pathogens can provoke stress and immune responses due to alterations in immune parameters. The mechanisms through which stressors mediate effects on immune parameters are not fully understood in decapods. Improved knowledge of the environmental factors - above all, their abiotic components - that influence the immune parameters of decapods could help mitigate or constrain their harmful effects that adversely affect the production of decapod crustaceans. The first part of this overview examines current knowledge and information gaps regarding the basic components and functions of the innate immune system of decapods. In the second part, we discuss various mechanisms provoked by environmental factors and categorize cellular and molecular immune responses to each environmental factor with special reference to decapods.

Dissimilar behavioral and spatial avoidance responses by shrimps from tropical and temperate environments exposed to copper.

Behavioral changes associated with exposure to pollutants represent the earliest response for organisms confronted by perceivable chemical signals. This study was carried out with the objective of evaluating behavioral responses associated with different scenarios of exposure to pollutants (non-forced vs forced) in two shrimp species (Penaeus vannamei and Palaemon varians), representative of different latitudes and using copper as a model contaminant. The effects on locomotion were evaluated by exposing the shrimps to a range of copper concentrations (0, 0.5, 5, 50, and 250 µg/L) in the forced scenario. After exposure, the movement patterns for each shrimp were recorded and used to estimate changes in the shrimps' locomotion. For the non-forced scenario, the avoidance response was assessed by placing shrimps in a multi-compartment system where they were able to move freely along a gradient of copper (0, 0.5, 5, 50, and 250 µg/L). In terms of locomotion, an opposite trend was observed between the species: movements were significantly reduced in P. varians with concentrations above 50 µg/L, while hyperactivity was observed for P. vannamei. When exposed to a gradient of copper in the multi-compartment system, both species significantly avoided the highest concentrations of copper, although the repellence of copper was stronger for P. vannamei. In summary, both species of shrimps were able to recognize and avoid copper; however, in terms of locomotion, they showed an opposite behavioral reaction. These results show that a contamination event can have different behavioral outcomes depending on the species and complementing forced and non-forced exposure with species-specific information can be helpful to characterize and predict the effects of contaminants at higher biological levels.

Characterization, expression and function of the pyrokinins (PKs) in the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

Pyrokinins (PKs) are neuropeptides that have been found to regulate a variety of physiological activities including reproduction in various insect and crustacean species. However, the reproductive roles of PKs in the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, have not yet been investigated. In this study, we identified the MroPK gene from next-generation sequence resources, which encodes a MroPK precursor that shares a high degree of conservation with the C-terminal sequence of FxPRLamide in other arthropods. MroPK is expressed within most tissues, except the hepatopancreas, stomach and gill. Within developing ovarian tissue, MroPK expression was found to be significantly higher during the early stages (stages 1-2) compared with the late stages (stages 3-4), and could be localized to the oogonia, previtellogenic and early vitellogenic oocytes. A role for PK in M. rosenbergii reproduction was supported following experimental administration of MroPK to ovarian explant cultures, which led to an increase in the production of progesterone and estradiol and upregulation of expression of steroidogenesis-related genes (3ß-HSD and 17ß-HSD) and vitellogenin (Vg). Together, these results support a role for MroPK in regulating ovarian maturation via steroidogenesis.

Synthesis of digestive enzymes, food processing, and nutrient absorption in decapod crustaceans: a comparison to the mammalian model of digestion.

The ∼15.000 decapod crustaceans that are mostly omnivorous have evolved a structurally and functionally complex digestive system. They have highly effective cuticular chewing and filtering structures in the stomach, which are regularly renewed by moulting. Decapods produce a broad range of digestive enzymes including chitinases, cellulases, and collagenases with unique properties. These enzymes are synthesized in the F-cells of the hepatopancreas and are encoded in the genome as pre-pro-proteins. In contrast to mammals, they are stored in a mature form in the lumen of the stomach to await the next meal, and therefore, the enzymes are particularly stable. The fat emulsifiers are fatty acyl-dipeptides rather than bile salts. After mechanical and chemical processing of the food in the cardiac stomach, the chyme is filtered by two unique filter systems of different mesh-size. The filtrate is then transferred to the hepatopancreas where the nutrients are absorbed by the R-cells, mostly via carriers, resembling nutrient absorption in the small intestine of mammals. The absorbed nutrients are used to fuel the metabolism of the hepatopancreas, are supplied to other organs, and are stored in the R-cells as glycogen and lipid reserves. Export lipids are secreted from the R-cells into the haemolymph as high density lipoproteins that mainly consist of phospholipids. In contrast to mammals, the midgut tube and hindgut contribute only little to food processing and nutrient absorption. The oesophagus, stomach and hindgut are well innervated but the hepatopancreas lacks nerves. Hormone cells are abundant in the midgut and hepatopancreas epithelia. Microorganisms are often present in the intestine of decapods, but they are apparently not essential for digestion and nutrition.

Signaling Pathways That Regulate the Crustacean Molting Gland.

A pair of Y-organs (YOs) are the molting glands of decapod crustaceans. They synthesize and secrete steroid molting hormones (ecdysteroids) and their activity is controlled by external and internal signals. The YO transitions through four physiological states over the molt cycle, which are mediated by molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH; basal state), mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1; activated state), Transforming Growth Factor-ß (TGFß)/Activin (committed state), and ecdysteroid (repressed state) signaling pathways. MIH, produced in the eyestalk X-organ/sinus gland complex, inhibits the synthesis of ecdysteroids. A model for MIH signaling is organized into a cAMP/Ca2+-dependent triggering phase and a nitric oxide/cGMP-dependent summation phase, which maintains the YO in the basal state during intermolt. A reduction in MIH release triggers YO activation, which requires mTORC1-dependent protein synthesis, followed by mTORC1-dependent gene expression. TGFß/Activin signaling is required for YO commitment in mid-premolt. The YO transcriptome has 878 unique contigs assigned to 23 KEGG signaling pathways, 478 of which are differentially expressed over the molt cycle. Ninety-nine contigs encode G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 65 of which bind a variety of neuropeptides and biogenic amines. Among these are putative receptors for MIH/crustacean hyperglycemic hormone neuropeptides, corazonin, relaxin, serotonin, octopamine, dopamine, allatostatins, Bursicon, ecdysis-triggering hormone (ETH), CCHamide, FMRFamide, and proctolin. Contigs encoding receptor tyrosine kinase insulin-like receptor, epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor, and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor and ligands EGF and FGF suggest that the YO is positively regulated by insulin-like peptides and growth factors. Future research should focus on the interactions of signaling pathways that integrate physiological status with environmental cues for molt control.

Osmoregulatory power influences tissue ionic composition after salinity acclimation in aquatic decapods.

Decapod crustaceans show variable degrees of euryhalinity and osmoregulatory capacity, by responding to salinity changes through anisosmotic extracellular regulation and/or cell volume regulation. Cell volume regulatory mechanisms involve exchange of inorganic ions between extra- and intra-cellular (tissue) compartments. Here, this interplay of inorganic ions between both compartments has been evaluated in four decapod species with distinct habitats and osmoregulatory strategies. The marine/estuarine species Litopenaeus vannamei (Lv) and Callinectes danae (Cd) were submitted to reduced salinity (15‰), after acclimation to 25 and 30‰, respectively. The freshwater Macrobrachium acanthurus (Ma) and Aegla schmitti (As) were submitted to increased salinity (25‰). The four species were salinity-challenged for both 5 and 10 days. Hemolymph osmolality, sodium, chloride, potassium, and magnesium were assayed. The same inorganic ions were quantified in muscle samples. Muscle hydration (MH) and ninhydrin-positive substances (NPS) were also determined. Lv showed slight hemolymph dilution, increased MH and no osmotically-relevant decreases in muscle osmolytes; Cd displayed hemolymph dilution, decreased muscular NaCl and stable MH; Ma showed hypo-regulation and steady MH, with no change in muscle ions; As conformed hemolymph sodium but hypo-regulated chloride, had stable MH and increased muscle NPS and ion levels. Hemolymph and muscle ions (especially chloride) of As were highly correlated (Pearson, +0.83). Significant exchanges between hemolymph and muscle ionic pools were more evident in the two species with comparatively less AER regulatory power, C. danae and A. schmitti. Our findings endorse that the interplay between extracellular and tissue ionic pools is especially detectable in euryhaline species with relatively lower osmoregulatory strength.

Overview of the latest developments in the role of probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics in shrimp aquaculture.

With the growing world population, the demand for food has increased, leading to excessive and intensive breeding and cultivation of fisheries, simultaneously exacerbating the risk of disease. Recently, shrimp producers have faced major losses of stocks due to the prevalence of periodical diseases and inappropriate use of antibiotics for disease prevention and treatment, leading to bacterial resistance in shrimp, along with imposing health hazards on human consumers. Strict regulations have been placed to ban or reduce the use of prophylactic antibiotics to lessen their detrimental effects on aquatic life. Dietary and water supplements have been used as substitutes, among which probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics have been the most beneficial for controlling or treating bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases in shrimp. The present analysis addresses the issues and current progress in the administration of pro-, pre-, and synbiotics as disease controlling agents in the field of shrimp farming. Furthermore, the benefits of pro-, pre-, and synbiotics and their mechanism of action have been identified such as; strengthening of immune responses, growth of antibacterial agents, alteration in gut microflora, competition for nutrients and binding sites, and enzymes related activities. Overall, this study aims to depict the antagonistic action of these supplements against a variety of pathogens and their mode of action to counter diseases and benefit shrimp species.

Direct and indirect effects of fenoxycarb on freshwater systems dominated by Neocaridina palmata (Decapoda: Atyidae) and macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum.

Few studies have been conducted with regard to the effects of insecticides on population dynamics of shrimps and associated groups such as macrophytes, phytoplankton, microorganisms etc. In the present study, effects of a single application of fenoxycarb were tested using indoor freshwater systems dominated by Neocaridina palmata and Ceratophyllum demersum (Dicotyledons: Ceratophyllales). The no observed effect concentration (NOEC) and lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) for the N. palmata, as scaled by liberated chitobiase, were 6.48 µg/L and 27.76 µg/L, and the dose-related effect lasted for 14 days. Results of principal components analysis (PCA) and that of principal response curves (PRC) method showed that the biomass of C. demersum and concentrations of chlorophyll-a were suppressed, while the concentrations of phycocyanin were promoted. Illumina high-throughput sequencing was adopted to determine the diversity of bacteria and fungi in the media. Result of PCA and PRC showed that the fenoxycarb promoted photosynthetic bacteria (e.g. Cyanobacteria and Rhodobacterales) and suppressed groups involved in nitrogen and sulfur the transformation (e.g. Flavobacterium, hgcI_clade, Cystobasidium, Rhodotorula and Rhizobiales). Promotion in pathogen such as Pseudomonas and Cercozoa and suppression in beneficial taxa such as Novosphingobium and Rhodotorula were also sighted. Result of study suggested a water quality deterioration due to fenoxycarb applications.

Rediscovery of the rare Mediterranean marine cave stenopodid shrimp emOdontozona/em emaddaia/em Pretus, 1990, 30 years after its original description (Crustacea: Decapoda: Stenopodidea).

Thirty years after its first finding and description, the marine cave stenopodid shrimp Odontozona addaia is here reported for the second time. The new localities, particular marine caves of southern France, are more than 300 km apart from the type locality in the Balearic Islands. First live in situ photographs are provided, and the morphological intraspecific variability is detailed by comparing the new specimens to the types. DNA sequences were also obtained for comparison with other Odontozona species. Based on both morphology and molecular analysis, closest relatives of O. addaia appear to be the western Atlantic Odontozona meloi and the eastern Mediterranean Odontozona minoica, although their detailed relationships remain unresolved.

New data on Beurlenia araripensis Martins-Neto & Mezzalira, 1991, a lacustrine shrimp from Crato Formation, and its morphological variations based on the shape and the number of rostral spines.

Fossil freshwater carideans are very rare worldwide. Here, we present new taxonomic remarks about Beurlenia araripensis from the Early Cretaceous laminated limestones of the Crato Formation, Araripe Basin, northeastern Brazil. We analyzed five fossil samples, testing the morphological variations such as, rostrum with 5 to 14 supra-rostral spines and 2 to 3 sub-rostral spines, which appears as serrate for Caridea. This variation demonstrates a morphologic plasticity also seen in extant species of the group, such as those of the genera Macrobrachium and Palaemon.

The orbital hoods of snapping shrimp have surface features that may represent tradeoffs between vision and protection.

Snapping shrimp (Alpheidae) are decapod crustaceans named for the snapping claws with which they produce cavitation bubbles. Snapping shrimp use the shock waves released by collapsing cavitation bubbles as weapons. Along with their distinctive claws, snapping shrimp have orbital hoods, extensions of their carapace that cover their heads and eyes. Snapping shrimp view the world through their orbital hoods, so we asked if the surfaces of the orbital hoods of the snapping shrimp Alpheus heterochaelis have features that minimize the scattering of light. Using SEM, we found that surface features, primarily microbial epibionts, covered less space on the surfaces of the orbital hoods of A. heterochaelis (∼18%) than they do elsewhere on the carapace (∼50%). Next, we asked if these surface features influence aerophobicity. By measuring the contact angles of air bubbles, we found the orbital hoods of A. heterochaelis are less aerophobic than other regions of the carapace. Surfaces that are less aerophobic are more likely to have cavitation bubbles adhere to them and are more likely to have shock waves cause new cavitation bubbles to nucleate upon them. Computational modeling indicates the orbital hoods of A. heterochaelis face a functional trade-off: fewer surface features, such as less extensive communities of microbial epibionts, may minimize the scattering of light at the cost of making the adhesion and nucleation of cavitation bubbles more likely.

The Neurobiology of Ocean Change - insights from decapod crustaceans.

The unprecedented rate of carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere has led to increased warming, acidification and oxygen depletion in the world's oceans, with projected impacts also on ocean salinity. In this perspective article, we highlight potential impacts of these factors on neuronal responses in decapod crustaceans. Decapod crustaceans comprise more than 8,800 marine species which have colonized a wide range of habitats that are particularly affected by global ocean change, including estuarine, intertidal, and coastal areas. Many decapod species have large economic value and high ecological importance because of their global invasive potential and impact on local ecosystems. Global warming has already led to considerable changes in decapod species' behavior and habitat range. Relatively little is known about how the decapod nervous system, which is the ultimate driver of all behaviors, copes with environmental stressors. We use select examples to summarize current findings and evaluate the impact of current and expected environmental changes. While data indicate a surprising robustness against stressors like temperature and pH, we find that only a handful of species have been studied and long-term effects on neuronal activity remain mostly unknown. A further conclusion is that the combined effects of multiple stressors are understudied. We call for greater research efforts towards long-term effects on neuronal physiology and expansion of cross-species comparisons to address these issues.

Full Functional Sex Reversal Achieved Through Silencing of MroDmrt11E Gene in Macrobrachium rosenbergii: Production of All-Male Monosex Freshwater Prawn.

The freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii is one kind of important economic aquaculture species and displays remarkable sexual dimorphism. The molecular mechanism of sexual differentiation in M. rosenbergii has been primarily unraveled through the research efforts of the androgenic gland and its related genes. However, the understanding of conserved genes involved in the molecular mechanism underpinning sex determination and sexual differentiation of M. rosenbergii is still fragmentary. MroDmrt11E is a member of the doublesex and mab-3-related transcription factor (Dmrt) gene family and is prominently expressed in the testis. In the present study, in vivo knockdown of MroDmrt11E at the postlarva stage in male prawn induced a complete and functional sex reversal and achieved the production of an all-male monosex population. Furthermore, a great deal of new information of upregulated and downregulated transcriptions involved in sexual differentiation of MroDmrt11E knockdown was enriched by comparative transcriptomic analysis. The effects of RNAi-mediated gene knockdown of MroDmrt11E on the differentially expressed and sex-related candidate genes, such as transformer, fruitless, feminization, insulin-like androgenic gland gene, Dmrt gene family, were primarily focused on, and their possible molecular regulatory relationships in sexual differentiation were analyzed. Meanwhile, the response of primary Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) biological pathways was investigated to expound the potential roles of MroDmrt11E in male sexual differentiation, which provided a deeper understanding of the molecular regulatory network underlying sexual differentiation of M. rosenbergii. The finding provided a novel sexual manipulation technique through silencing of Dmrt gene family for achieving a complete and functional sex reversal and offered a new insight regarding the mechanism of the Dmrt gene family in the sexual differentiation of crustaceans.

The "IAG-Switch"-A Key Controlling Element in Decapod Crustacean Sex Differentiation.

The androgenic gland (AG)-a unique crustacean endocrine organ that secretes factors such as the insulin-like androgenic gland (IAG) hormone-is a key player in crustacean sex differentiation processes. IAG expression induces masculinization, while the absence of the AG or a deficiency in IAG expression results in feminization. Therefore, by virtue of its universal role as a master regulator of crustacean sexual development, the IAG hormone may be regarded as the sexual "IAG-switch." The switch functions within an endocrine axis governed by neuropeptides secreted from the eyestalks, and interacts downstream with specific insulin receptors at its target organs. In recent years, IAG hormones have been found-and sequenced-in dozens of decapod crustacean species, including crabs, prawns, crayfish and shrimps, bearing different types of reproductive strategies-from gonochorism, through hermaphroditism and intersexuality, to parthenogenesis. The IAG-switch has thus been the focus of efforts to manipulate sex developmental processes in crustaceans. Most sex manipulations were performed using AG ablation or knock-down of the IAG gene in males in order to sex reverse them into "neo-females," or using AG implantation/injecting AG extracts or cells into females to produce "neo-males." These manipulations have highlighted the striking crustacean sexual plasticity in different species and have permitted the manifestation of either maleness or femaleness without altering the genotype of the animals. Furthermore, these sex manipulations have not only facilitated fundamental studies of crustacean sexual mechanisms, but have also enabled the development of the first IAG-switch-based monosex population biotechnologies, primarily for aquaculture but also for pest control. Here, we review the crustacean IAG-switch, a unique crustacean endocrine mechanism, from the early discoveries of the AG and the IAG hormone to recent IAG-switch-based manipulations. Moreover, we discuss this unique early pancrustacean insulin-based sexual differentiation control mechanism in contrast to the extensively studied mechanisms in vertebrates, which are based on sex steroids.

Distribution patterns, carbon sources and niche partitioning in cave shrimps (Atyidae: Typhlatya).

Cave shrimps of the Typhlatya genus are common and widespread in fresh, brackish and marine groundwater throughout the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico). These species are ideal models to test niche partitioning within sympatric species in oligotrophic systems. Nevertheless, their food sources remain unidentified, and despite their frequency and functional importance, distribution and abundance patterns of these species within caves have not been fully recognized. Here, we describe the abundance of three Typhlatya species in different temporal and spatial scales, investigate changes in water conditions, and potential sources of carbon as an indication of food origin. Species composition and abundance varied markedly in space and time revealing patterns that differed from one system to another and in relation to environmental parameters. Isotope analysis showed that each species reflects a particular δ13C and Δ14C fingerprint, suggesting they feed in different proportions from the available carbon sources. Overall, our findings suggest a niche partitioning of habitat and feeding sources amongst the three Typhlatya species investigated, where environmental characteristics and physiological differences could play an important role governing their distribution patterns.

Roles of gonad-inhibiting hormone in the protandric simultaneous hermaphrodite peppermint shrimp†.

To date, the molecular mechanisms of the unique gonadal development mode known as protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism (PSH) are unclear in crustaceans. In this study, cDNA of a gonad-inhibiting hormone (Lv-GIH1) was isolated from the PSH peppermint shrimp Lysmata vittata, and its expression was exclusively found in the eyestalk ganglion. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) revealed that the expression of Lv-GIH1 increased during gonadal development of the functional male stages but decreased significantly at subsequent simultaneous hermaphroditism stage. Further in vitro experiment showed that recombinant GIH1 protein (rGIH1) effectively inhibited Vg expression in the cultured hepatopancreas tissues while the short-term injection of GIH1-dsRNA resulted in reduced expression of Lv-GIH1 and upregulated expression of Vg in the hepatopancreas. Moreover, long-term rGIH1 injection led to significantly reduced expression of Lv-Vg, Lv-VgR, and Lv-CFSH1, subdued growth of oocytes, and feathery setae as a secondary sexual characteristic in females. Interestingly, while germ cells in testicular part were suppressed by rGIH1 injection, the expression of Lv-IAGs showed no significant difference; and long-term GIH1-dsRNA injection results were contrary to those of rGIH1 injection. Taken together, the results of this study indicate that Lv-GIH1 is involved in gonadal development and might also participate in controlling secondary sexual characteristic development in L. vittata by inhibiting Lv-CFSH1 expression.

Biomarkers of homeostasis, allostasis, and allostatic overload in decapod crustaceans of distinct habitats and osmoregulatory strategies: an empirical approach.

The term "allostasis", meaning the assumption that homeostasis may not be as static as the term implies, has been vastly employed for mammals, and other vertebrates, for which the degree of internal stability is maximal, according to their higher complexity. We have here investigated how these states of homeostasis, allostasis, and allostatic overload could be diagnosed in decapod crustaceans, upon acute salinity challenges. Decapods of distinct lineages and habitats have been submitted to 3 salinity levels for 6 and 12 h. The first salinity was the habitat salinity (control), considered as the one that allows the homeostatic condition. The next salinity represented a mild challenge, that would potentially lead to allostasis, and the third salinity was intended to represent an overload, albeit not lethal. Species used were: the marine crab Hepatus pudibundus (Hp, osmoconformer, salinities 33, 25, and 20‰), the marine/estuarine swimming crab Callinectes danae (Cd, weak regulator, salinities 30, 20, and 10‰), and the diadromous freshwater prawn Macrobrachium acanthurus (Ma, strong regulator, salinities <0.5, 15, and 30‰). These 3 species follow a sequence of growing regulatory capacity (Hp